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⚫️ THE LEGEND THAT IS NERVA “Nerva ruled so well that he once remarked: "I have done nothing that would prevent my laying down the imperial office and returning to private life in safety."  When Calpurnius Crassus, a descendant of the famous Crassi, had formed a plot with some others against him, he caused them to sit beside him at a spectacle (they were still ignorant of the fact that they had been informed upon) and gave them swords, ostensibly to inspect and see if they were sharp (as was often done), but really in order to show that he did not care even if he died then and there.” Cassius Dio

🟡 SLOTH AND GLUTTONY “The Gauls filled themselves to repletion with wine and other luxuries, being intemperate by nature, and inhabiting a country which yielded only cereals, and was unfruitful and destitute of other productions. Thus their large bodies became delicate, distended with fatness, and heavy by reason of excessive eating and drinking, and quite incapable of running or hardship; and when any exertion was required of them they speedily became exhausted by perspiration and shortness of breath.” “He (Camillus) showed them naked to the Romans and said: "These are the creatures who assail you with such terrible shouts in battle, and clash their arms and shake their long swords and toss their hair. Behold their weakness of soul, their slothfulness and flabbiness of body, and gird yourselves to your work." Appian, the foreign wars

🟤 (CRISIS OF THE) THIRD CENTURY EMPERORS LIST. Roman Emperors between Alexander Severus and Diocletian, along with their regnal years: Maximinus Thrax (235-238 AD) Gordian I (238 AD) Gordian II (238 AD) Pupienus (238 AD) Balbinus (238 AD) Gordian III (238-244 AD) Philip the Arab (244-249 AD) Decius (249-251 AD) Hostilian (251 AD) Trebonianus Gallus (251-253 AD) Aemilian (253 AD) Valerian (253-260 AD) Gallienus (253-268 AD) Claudius II Gothicus (268-270 AD) Quintillus (270 AD) Aurelian (270-275 AD) Tacitus (275-276 AD) Florian (276 AD) Probus (276-282 AD) Carus (282-283 AD) Carinus (283-285 AD) Numerian (283-284 AD) Diocletian (284-305 AD)

🔶 HOSTILE HOSPITALITY IN NORTH AFRICA “The Vagenses, in whose town Metellus had placed a garrison at first, at the time when Jugurtha was suing for peace, yielded to the entreaties of the king, towards whom they had always been well disposed, and the leading men of the town entered into a conspiracy. As to the commons, they were of a fickle disposition, as is usually the case and as is particularly true of the Numidians, prone to rebellion and disorder, fond of change and opposed to peace and quiet. Then, after arranging matters among themselves, they appointed the third day from that time, because it was observed as a holiday all over Africa and promised entertainment and festivity rather than danger. However, when the appointed time arrived, they invited the centurions and military tribunes and even the prefect⁠ of the town himself, Titus Turpilius Silanus by name, to their several homes. There all except Turpilius were slain while feasting. The conspirators then fell upon the common soldiers, who were strolling about unarmed, as was natural on such a day, when they were off duty. The commons joined in the massacre, some at the instigation of the nobles, others inspired by a natural fondness for such conduct; for although they knew neither what was being done nor its purpose, they found sufficient incentive in mere revolution and disorder.” “The Roman soldiers, being bewildered by this unexpected peril and not knowing what to do first, were thrown into disorder. They were cut off from the citadel of the town, where their standards and shields were, by a hostile force, and from flight by the gates, closed beforehand. Moreover, women and boys from the roofs of the houses were busily pelting them with stones and whatever else they could lay hands on. It was quite impossible to guard against the double danger⁠ and brave men were helpless before the feeblest of opponents. Side by side valiant and cowardly, strong and weak, fell without striking a blow.” Sallust

🔺 THE THIRD CELTIBERIAN WAR “Aulus Hostilius Mancinus as praetor set out against the Numantines (137 BC, Spain), although he had been warned by birds and some unknown voice recalling him. When he arrived at Numantia, he decided to first correct the discipline of the army, which he had received from Pompeius, and led it off to a deserted place. That day, by chance, was the appointed day on which the Numantines arranged marriages for their daughters; and the father of a beautiful girl, who was being sought by two suitors, set a condition that she would marry the one who brought back the right hand of an enemy. The young men, observing the departure of the Romans as if they were fleeing, rushed back to their own people and reported the matter. They immediately killed twenty thousand Romans with four thousand of their own men. Mancinus, on the advice of Tiberius Gracchus his quaestor, made a treaty according to the enemy's terms. When this treaty was rejected by the senate, Mancinus was surrendered to the Numantines, but they did not accept him. He was brought back to the camp by augury (Augury was a Greco-Roman religious practice of observing the behavior of birds, to receive omens), and afterwards obtained the praetorship.” (The Numantine War 143-133 BC: Numantia's decade-long fight against the Romans in Spain. Ended in destruction of the city of Numantia). [Aurelius Victor] : De Viris Illustribus

🔘 WHEN INTELLIGENCE MEETS SARCASM He (The Elder Cato) said that he preferred to receive no thanks when he had done a favour rather than to suffer no punishment when he had done a wrong, and that he always granted pardon to all who erred, with the single exception of himself. In trying to stimulate the officials to administer sharp rebuke to the erring, he used to say that, if those who have the power to discourage crime do not discourage it, then they encourage it. He said that it gave him more joy to see those of the youth that blushed than those that blanched. He said that he hated a solder who plied his hands in marching and his feet in fighting, and whose snore was louder than his battle-cry. He said that the worst ruler is one who cannot rule himself. He thought it especially necessary for every man to respect himself, since no man is ever separated from himself. Seeing that statues were being set up in honour of many men, he said, "As for myself, I had rather that men should ask why there is not a statue of Cato than why there is." He charged those in power to be sparing of their authority, so that authority might continue always to be theirs. He used to say that those who rob virtue of honour rob youth of virtue. An official or a judge, he said, ought neither to require importuning to grant what is right nor to yield to importuning to grant what is wrong. Wrongdoing, he used to say, even if it brings no risk to its authors, brings risk to all. He used to say that, since there are so many odious things connected with old age, it is only right not to add the odium which comes from vice. He had an idea that the man who has lost his temper differs from him who has lost his mind only in duration of time. He said that those who use their good fortune reasonably and moderately are least envied; for people envy not us but our surroundings. He used to say that those who are serious in ridiculous matters will be ridiculous in serious matters.” Plutarch, Sayings Of The Romans

🔵 ARTAVASDES OF ARMENIA WRITES SHAPUR OF THE SASSANIDS. "I have, indeed, a share in your glory, but I fear that you have not so much conquered as sown the seeds of war. For Valerian is being sought back by his son, his grandson, and the generals of Rome, by all Gaul, all Africa, all Spain, all Italy, and by all the nations of Illyricum, the East, and Pontus, which are leagued with the Romans or subject to them. So, then, you have captured one old man but have made all the nations of the world your bitterest foes, and ours too, perhaps, for we have sent you aid, we are your neighbours, and we always suffer when you fight with each other." Historia Augusta

🟣 ACQUIRING CYPRUS “But when the last Ptolemy that reigned, the brother of the father of Cleopatra, the queen in my time, was decreed to be both disagreeable and ungrateful to his benefactors, he was deposed, and the Romans took possession of the island; and it has become a praetorian province by itself. The chief cause of the ruin of the king was Publius Claudius Pulcher; for the latter, having fallen into the hands of the bands of pirates, the Cilicians then being at the height of their power, and, being asked for a ransom, sent a message to the king, begging him to send and rescue him. The king indeed sent a ransom, but so utterly small that the pirates disdained to take it and sent it back again, but released him without ransom. Having safely escaped, he remembered the favour of both; and, when he became tribune of the people, he was so powerful that he had Marcus Cato sent to take Cypros away from its possessor. Now the king killed himself beforehand, but Cato went over and took Cypros and disposed of the king's property and carried the money to the Roman treasury. From that time the island became a province, just as it is now — a praetorian province. During a short intervening time Antony gave it over to Cleopatra and her sister Arsinoê, but when he was overthrown his whole organisation was overthrown with him.” Strabo

⚪️ IMPERATOR “It was a custom among the Roman soldiers, that if any of their generals fought a battle and killed more than six thousand of the enemy, they called him imperator, which means the same as 'king' in Greek.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 THE GENIUS OF SPARTACUS “When Marcus Crassus had constructed a ditch around the forces of Spartacus, the latter at night filled it with the bodies of prisoners and cattle that he had slain, and thus marched across it.” “The same Spartacus, when besieged on the slopes of Vesuvius at the point where the mountain was steepest and on that account unguarded, plaited ropes of osiers from the woods. Letting himself down by these, he not only made his escape, but by appearing in another quarter struck such terror into Clodius that several cohorts gave way before a force of only seventy-four gladiators.” “This Spartacus, when enveloped by the troops of the proconsul Publius Varinius, placed stakes at short intervals before the gate of the camp; then setting up corpses, dressed in clothes and furnished with weapons, he tied these to the stakes to give the appearance of sentries when viewed from a distance. He also lighted fires throughout the whole camp. Deceiving the enemy by this empty show, Spartacus by night silently led out his troops.” Frontinus: The Strategemata

⚫️ FINDING OUT YOU ARE ON AN ISLAND “Meanwhile war had again broken out in Britain, and Gnaeus Julius Agricola overran the whole of the enemy's territory there. He was the first of the Romans whom we know to discover the fact that Britain is surrounded by water. It seems that some soldiers rebelled, and after slaying the centurions and a military tribune took refuge in boats, in which they put out to sea and sailed round the western portion of the country just as the wind and the waves chanced to carry them; and without realizing it, since they approached from the opposite direction, they put in at the camps on the first side again. Thereupon Agricola sent others to attempt the voyage around Britain, and learned from them, too, that it was an island.” Cassius Dio

🟡 ARCHIMEDES OF SYRACUSE During the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic laid siege to the Greek city of Syracuse. To defend his homeland, the renowned mathematician and inventor Archimedes devised a series of ingenious war machines. These included the "Claw of Archimedes," a crane-like device that could lift Roman ships out of the water and either drop them or swing them against the rocks. Powerful catapults and ballistae launched projectiles at the Roman soldiers and ships, inflicting heavy casualties. While the existence of a "heat ray" – a system of mirrors to focus sunlight onto Roman ships – remains debated, it has entered into legend. These defenses proved highly effective, stalling the Roman advance for a considerable period. Syracuse eventually fell to the Romans in 212 BC. Some accounts suggest Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier while engrossed in a mathematical problem, while others claim he was murdered despite orders from the Roman general Marcellus to spare his life.

🟤 FOOD PRESERVATION Salting was a common practice for meats, fish, and even eggs, drawing moisture out and inhibiting bacterial growth. Drying, whether in the sun or over fires, removed moisture from fruits, vegetables, and meats, preventing spoilage. Smoking not only dried meat but also infused it with flavor. Pickling in vinegar or brine created an acidic environment that hindered bacterial growth. Honey, used as both a sweetener and preservative, was particularly effective for fruits. Olive oil also served as a preservative, especially for olives themselves. Storage methods included burying food in the ground or storing it in cool, dry places. These techniques allowed the Romans to extend the shelf life of their food.

🔶 THE JUGURTHINE WAR BEGINS “Meanwhile Calpurnius, having levied his army, chose as his lieutenants men of noble rank and strong party spirit, by whose influence he hoped that any misdeeds of his would be upheld. Among these was Scaurus, whose character and conduct I described a short time ago.⁠ For though our consul possessed many excellent qualities of mind and body, they were all nullified by avarice. He had great endurance, a keen intellect, no little foresight, considerable military experience, and a stout heart in the face of dangers and plots.  Now the legions were transported across Italy to Rhegium, from there to Sicily, from Sicily to Africa. Then Calpurnius, having provided himself with supplies, began by making a vigorous attack on the Numidians, taking many prisoners and storming several of their towns.” Sallust

🔺 REGNAL, CONSULAR, AND IMPERIAL EXPANSION. “Therefore, how much Rome has advanced under these three types of rule - that is, regnal, consular, and imperial - I shall briefly sketch. (Kingdom) Under seven kings through 243 years, Roman imperium did not advance beyond Portus and Ostia, within 18 miles from the gates of the city of Rome, seeing that she was as yet small and founded by shepherds, while neighboring cities were hemming her in. (Republic) At the same time, through 467 years under consuls, among whom there sometimes were dictators, too, Italy was occupied as far as beyond the Po, Africa was subjugated, the Spains added, and Gaul and Britain made tributaries. As for Illyricum, Histri, Libyrni, and Dalmatae were mastered; it passed to Achaea; Macedonians were subjugated; with Dardanians, Moesians, and Thracians it warred; and it reached all the way to the Danube. After Antiochus had been expelled, Romans first set foot in Asia; when Mithridates had been conquered, his kingdom was occupied; Armenia Minor, which he likewise had held, was obtained by arms; a Roman army reached Mesopotamia; a treaty was initiated with the Parthians; against Carduenians and Saracens and Arabs it warred; all of Judaea was conquered; Cilicia and Syria came into the power of the Roman people. Egypt's kings became allies. (Empire) Moreover, under the imperatores, through 407 years, while many principes were directing the diverse fortune of the state, the Maritime Alps, Cottian, Raetian, and Norican Alps, the Pannonias, and the Moesias accrued to the Roman world, and the entire bank of the Danube was reduced to provinces. All Pontus, Armenia Major, all Oriens, with Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt, passed under the jurisdiction of Roman imperium.” Festus, Breviarum

🔘 I ACCEPT THE OMEN “Paulus Aemilius, when he was a candidate for a second term as consul, failed of election. But when the war against Perseus and the Macedonians dragged on because of the inexperience and effeminacy of the generals, the people appointed him consul. But he said he owed no thanks to them; for it was not because he wanted office, but because they wanted an officer, that he was chosen general. Coming home from the Forum and finding Tertia, his little daughter, in tears, he asked the reason. And she said: "Our Perseus is dead." (It was a pet dog which had that name.) "Good luck be with me, my girl," said he; "I accept the omen." Plutarch, Sayings Of The Romans

🔵 JEWS, GERMANY, CONSTANTINE In 321, Roman Emperor Constantine issued a decree allowing Jews to be appointed to the city council (curia) of Cologne. This decree is significant as it's the earliest surviving document indicating the existence of a Jewish community north of the Alps. The exact wording of the Decree of 321 regarding Jews in Cologne is not preserved in its original form. However, it is recorded in the Codex Theodosianus, a collection of Roman laws compiled in the 5th century. Here is a partial translation of the relevant passage from the Codex Theodosianus: "We allow all city councils to appoint through general law, Jewish people in the Curia." This indicates that the decree permitted the inclusion of Jews within the curia, the governing body of the Roman city of Cologne.