🔺 WHAT WAS A SIGNIFER? The signifer was a non-commissioned officer within a Roman centuria (a unit of around 80-100 men). Their primary role was to carry the signum, the standard specific to that centuria. This signum served as a visual identifier for the unit and a rallying point in battle. the signum often consisted of a pole topped with a manus (an open hand) made of bronze or silver. Below the manus, there might be a number of phalerae (metal discs or medallions) awarded to the centuria for valorous deeds or to individual soldiers.
Sometimes, small religious images or other symbolic decorations were also attached. Importantly, the signifer also acted as the paymaster and banker for the soldiers within their centuria, holding their savings. They were typically experienced and trustworthy veterans, earning double the basic soldier's pay.

🔘 THE CHRISTIANS AND JEWS OF RAVENNA “Then Theoderic made Eutharicus consul and celebrated triumphs at Rome and at Ravenna. This Eutharicus was an excessively rough man, and an enemy to the Catholic faith. After this, while Theoderic was remaining at Verona through fear of the neighbouring peoples, strife arose between the Christians and the Jews of the city of Ravenna; accordingly the Jews, being unwilling to be baptised, often in sport threw the holy water that was offered to them into the water of the river. Because of this the people were fired with anger, and without respect for the king, for Eutharicus, or for Peter, who was bishop at the time, they rose against the synagogues and presently set them on fire. And this same thing happened in a similar affair at Rome.” The Anonymus Valesianus

🔵 MAXENTIUS AND CONSTANTINE Constantine married Fausta, the sister of Maxentius, which could be seen as a political alliance or at least a family connection. Both men sought to consolidate their power and control over the Roman Empire, leading to a growing rivalry. This rivalry ultimately escalated into open conflict. The decisive confrontation occurred at the Battle of Milvian Bridge near Rome in 312. Constantine strategically positioned his forces near the bridge, a vital crossing point over the Tiber River. Maxentius established strong defensive positions to guard the bridge. The battle was fierce, with both sides engaging in intense combat. According to later Christian accounts, Constantine had a vision prior to the battle, where he saw a luminous cross in the sky with the inscription "In this sign conquer." Constantine's forces prevailed. Maxentius, attempting to flee across the bridge, drowned in the Tiber River.

🟣 “OUTDONE BY US ROMANS” "[In great buildings] as well as in other things the rest of the world has been outdone by us Romans. If, indeed, all the buildings in our City are considered in the aggregate, and supposing them - so to say - all thrown together in one vast mass, the united grandeur of them would lead one to imagine that we were describing another world, accumulated in a single spot. Not to mention among our great works the Circus Maximus, that was built by the Dictator Caesar - one stadium broad and three in length - and occupying with the adjacent buildings no less than four iugera [about 2 acres] with room for no less than 160,000 spectators seated - am I not, however, to include in the number of our magnificent structures the Basilica of Paulus with its admirable Phrygian columns [built also in Julius Caesar's day], the Forum of the late Emperor Augustus, the Temple of Peace erected by the Emperor Vespasian Augustus - some of the finest work the world has ever seen? [and many others].” Pliny the Elder

The Spanish asked the Aztecs to make em folded bread in the Arabian way. The Aztecs did it but used other ingrediënts and TACO’S were born.

Thank God for God.

⚪️ THE CELTS ENTER ROME “For the Celts spent the first day cutting off, according to their custom, the heads of the dead. And for two days they lay encamped before the city, for when they saw the walls deserted and yet heard the noise made by those who were transferring their most useful possessions to the acropolis, they suspected that the Romans were planning a trap for them. But on the fourth day, after they had learned the true state of affairs, they broke down the gates and pillaged the city except for a few dwellings on the Palatine. After this they delivered daily assaults on strong positions, without, however, inflicting any serious hurt upon their opponents and with the loss of many of their own troops. Nevertheless, they did not relax their ardour, expecting that, even if they did not conquer by force, they would wear down the enemy in the course of time, when the necessities of life had entirely given out.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 ROME AND THE JEWS “But there was nothing that affected the nation so much, in the calamities they were then under, as that their holy place, which had been hitherto seen by none, should be laid open to strangers; for Pompey, and those that were about him, went into the temple itself whither it was not lawful for any to enter but the high priest, and saw what was reposited therein, the candlestick with its lamps, and the table, and the pouring vessels, and the censers, all made entirely of gold, as also a great quantity of spices heaped together, with two thousand talents of sacred money. Yet did not he touch that money, nor any thing else that was there reposited; but he commanded the ministers about the temple, the very next day after he had taken it, to cleanse it, and to perform their accustomed sacrifices.” Flavius Josephus, The Wars Of The Jews

⚫️ DECLARING FOR VESPASIAN “Before the fifteenth of July all Syria had sworn the same allegiance. Vespasian's cause was now joined also by Sohaemus with his entire kingdom, whose strength was not to be despised, and by Antiochus who had enormous ancestral wealth, and was in fact the richest of the subject princes. Presently Agrippa, summoned from Rome by private messages from his friends, while Vitellius was still unaware of his action, quickly crossed the sea and joined the cause. Queen Berenice showed equal spirit in helping Vespasian's party: she had great youthful beauty, and commended herself to Vespasian for all his years by the splendid gifts she made him. All the provinces on the coast to the frontiers of Achaia and Asia, as well as all the inland provinces as far as Pontus and Armenia, took the oath of allegiance; but their governors had no armed forces, since Cappadocia had as yet no legions. A grand council was held at Berytus. Mucianus came there with all his lieutenants and tribunes, as well as his most distinguished centurions and soldiers; the army in Judea also sent its best representatives. This great concourse of foot and horse, with princes who rivalled one another in splendid display, made a gathering that befitted the high fortune of an emperor.” Tacitus, histories

Freedom of speech means nothing to those who have nothing to say.

🟡 DIGGING TOOLS The Romans employed a range of digging tools crafted from iron or bronze. The sarculum, a versatile hoe-like tool, was used for tasks such as digging, weeding, and cultivating soil. For breaking up hard ground and excavating trenches, the ligo, a heavy-duty tool with a curved blade similar to a mattock, was employed. The dolabra, a type of pickaxe with a curved blade, served the purpose of chopping wood and breaking rocks. For scooping up dirt and other materials, the batillum, a small shovel, was utilized. These tools, along with specialized implements like the falx, a curved sickle used for harvesting crops, were essential for a wide array of activities, from constructing roads and aqueducts to tending fields and gardens.

🟤 THE CANTABRIAN WARS The Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BC) were a brutal series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and the indigenous tribes of northern Spain, primarily the Cantabri and Astures. These fierce and strategically adept tribes, employing guerrilla tactics and fortified mountain strongholds, posed a formidable challenge to Roman legions. Despite initial setbacks, the Romans, under the leadership of Augustus, ultimately prevailed through overwhelming force and a scorched-earth policy. The wars resulted in the complete subjugation of the Cantabrians and Astures, marking the final stage of Rome's conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.

🔶 A SECOND CENTURY BANK LOAN “The 4th year of the Emperor Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, Pharmouthi 27, by a draft of the bank of Sabinus in the Treasuries' quarter. Isidora daughter of Heracleides son of Meledemus, with her guardian her kinsman Apion son of Apion, notifies Tamystha daughter of Origenes son of Origenes, with her guardian her son Ptolemaeus son of Ptolemaeus, that she, Tamystha, has received the loan of the capital sum of three thousand five hundred drachmas of silver, total 3500 dr., for one year from the present month Pachon, at the monthly interest of 1 drachma on each mina, which sum she will repay in the month Pharmouthi of the coming 5th year of Antoninus Caesar the lord with the interest accruing on it to the amount of 420 drachmas, in accordance with a contract of mortgage which Tamystha has made on her rights over a sum of money, and which was drawn up through the record-office.”

🔺 WHAT WAS A PREFECT? a prefect (praefectus in Latin, meaning "one placed in charge") was an appointed official, rather than an elected magistrate. Prefects were delegated authority by a higher-ranking official, such as a magistrate or the emperor, to carry out specific duties or administer certain areas. Their authority was derived from and limited by the official who appointed them. The biggest differences between a proconsul and a prefect in ancient Rome lie in their origin, rank, typical responsibilities, and the scope of their authority. Examples: -Praefectus Urbi: City of Rome's law and order. - Praefectus Annonae: Grain supply for Rome. - Praefectus Praetorio: Commander of the Praetorian Guard (evolved into a powerful administrative role). -Praefectus Vigilum: Rome's fire brigade and night watch. -Praefectus Castrorum: Legion camp administration. - Praefectus Cohortis: Commander of an auxiliary infantry unit. -Praefectus Classis: Commander of a fleet. -Praefectus Civitatium: Administrator of a specific town or area within a province.

🔘 THE IllITERACY OF THE OSTROGOTH “Now King Theoderic was without training in letters, and of such dull comprehension that for ten years of his reign he had been wholly unable to learn the four letters necessary for endorsing his edicts. For that reason he had a golden plate with slits made, containing the four letters "legi"; then, if he wished to endorse anything, he placed the plate over the paper and drew his pen through the slits, so that only this subscription of his was seen.” The Anonymus Valesianus

🔵 PYDNA The Battle of Pydna, fought in 168 BC, was a pivotal clash between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedon during the Third Macedonian War. The Macedonian phalanx, a formidable formation of heavily armed infantry, had long been the dominant military force in the Mediterranean, but its effectiveness was waning against the more adaptable Roman legions. Roman general Lucius Aemilius Paullus, recognizing the limitations of the phalanx, devised a strategy to exploit its weaknesses. He aimed to lure the Macedonians onto unfavorable ground and disrupt their tightly packed formation. King Perseus of Macedon, however, believed the hilly terrain would give him an advantage and deployed his phalanx accordingly. The Romans, initially hindered by the difficult terrain, found a more suitable route for their attack. They launched a fierce assault, utilizing their manipular system – flexible units of legionaries – to penetrate the phalanx. The Roman attack focused on the flanks and rear of the Macedonian formation, causing confusion and exploiting gaps in the tightly packed lines. The Macedonian phalanx, while initially strong, struggled to maneuver effectively on the uneven ground and became increasingly disorganized under the multi-pronged Roman assault. Unable to maintain its cohesion, the phalanx eventually crumbled. King Perseus and his army were routed, marking the end of Macedonian independence and ushering in an era of Roman dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. The Battle of Pydna demonstrated the superiority of the Roman legionary system over the traditional phalanx.

Life is rough man, but that’s probably what it should be 😂. Never stop smiling.

🟣 CLEOPATRA’S MARILYN MONROE EFFECT “For her actual beauty, it is said, was not in itself so remarkable that none could be compared with her, or that no one could see her without being struck by it, but the contact of her presence, if you lived with her, was irresistible; the attraction of her person, joining with the charm of her conversation, and the character that attended all she said or did, was something bewitching. It was a pleasure merely to hear the sound of her voice, with which, like an instrument of many strings, she could pass from one language to another; so that there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered by an interpreter. Antony was so captivated by her, that while Fulvia his wife maintained his quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of arms, and the Parthian troops...were assembled in Mesopotamia, and ready to enter Syria, he could yet suffer himself to be carried away by her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday, like a boy, in play and diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyment that most costly, as Antiphon says, of all valuables, time.” Plutarch