🟢 HASTE TO SURRENDER “When Domitius Corbulo was besieging Tigranocerta and the Armenians seemed likely to make an obstinate defence, Corbulo executed Vadandus, one of the nobles he had captured, shot his head out of a balista, and sent it flying within the fortifications of the enemy. It happened to fall in the midst of a council which the barbarians were holding at that very moment, and the sight of it (as though it were some portent) so filled them with consternation that they made haste to surrender.” Frontinus: The Strategemata

⚫️ GAIUS GRACCHUS “After an interval of ten years the same madness which had possessed Tiberius Gracchus now seized upon his brother Gaius, who resembled him in his general virtues as well as in his mistaken ambition, but far surpassed him in ability and eloquence. Gaius might have been the first man in the state had he held his spirit in repose; but, whether it was with the object of avenging his brother's death or of paving the way for kingly power, he followed the precedent which Tiberius had set and entered upon the career of a tribune. His aims, however, were far more ambitious and drastic. He was for giving the citizen­ship to all Italians, extending it almost to the Alps, distributing the public domain, limiting the holdings of each citizen to five hundred acres as had once been provided by the Licinian law, establishing new customs duties, filling the provinces with new colonies, transferring the judicial powers from the senate to the equites, and began the practice of distributing grain to the people. He left nothing undisturbed, nothing untouched, nothing unmolested, nothing, in short, as it had been. Furthermore he continued the exercise of his office for a second term.” Velleius Paterculus, Roman History

🟡 THE BORDER TRIBES "Marcomanni" essentially translates to "border men" or "men of the border." The Marcomannic Wars erupted in 166 AD along the Danube frontier of the Roman Empire, encompassing modern-day Austria, Hungary, Slovakia, and parts of Germany and the Balkans. This conflict pitted the Roman Empire against a formidable coalition of Germanic and Sarmatian tribes, primarily the Marcomanni and Quadi, along with other tribes like the Iazyges and Sarmatians. The sudden invasion across the Danube caught the Romans off guard, overwhelming frontier defenses and inflicting significant initial losses. The invaders exploited the vast and rugged terrain, employing hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and swift raids to their advantage. Emperor Marcus Aurelius personally assumed command of Roman forces. He mobilized legions from across the empire, drawing upon units like the Legio II Adiutrix and Legio XIV Gemina. The Germanic and Sarmatian forces, including heavy infantry, cavalry archers, and light skirmishers, fought with exceptional ferocity and discipline. The tribes' mobility allowed them to swiftly shift positions and evade Roman pursuit, while skilled horsemen armed with bows and arrows harassed Roman formations from a distance. The initial Roman response focused on stabilizing the situation, establishing a defensive line along the Danube to stem the tide of invaders. While the Romans achieved some initial successes, the conflict quickly escalated into a protracted and challenging struggle. The tribes likely sought to expand their territory into Roman provinces, driven by a desire for land, resources, and plunder.

🟤 PLINY THE ELDER ON JUDAEA “Beyond Idumaea and Samaria, Judaea extends far and wide. That part of it which joins up to Syria is called Galilaea, while that which is nearest to Arabia and Egypt bears the name of Peraea. This last is thickly covered with rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest of Judaea by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judaea is divided into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the following order: That of Hiericus, covered with groves of palm-trees, and watered by numerous springs, and those of Emmaus, Lydda, Joppe, Acrabatena, Gophna, Thamna, Bethleptephene, Orina, in which formerly stood Hierosolyma, by far the most famous city, not of Judaea only, but of the East, and Herodium, with a celebrated town of the same name.” Pliny the Elder

🔶 MARCHING INTO THE PLAIN OF IDISIAVISO “Thus inflamed and clamouring for battle, they followed their leaders down into a plain known as Idisiaviso.⁠ Lying between the Weser and the hills, it winds irregularly along, with here a concession from the river and there an encroachment by some mountain-spur. Behind rose the forest, lifting its branches high in air, and leaving the ground clear between the trunks. The barbarian line was posted on the level and along the skirts of the wood: the Cherusci alone were planted on the hill-tops, ready to charge from the height when the Romans engaged. Our army advanced in the following order: in the van, the auxiliary Gauls and Germans with the unmounted archers behind; next, four legions, and the Caesar (Germanicus) with two praetorian cohorts and the flower of the cavalry; then, four other legions, the light-armed troops with the mounted archers and the rest of the allied cohorts. The men were alert and ready, so arranged that the order of march could come to a halt in line of battle.” Tacitus

🔺 DEEP HOLE IN THE FORUM “In this year (362 BC), owing either to an earthquake or the action of some other force, the middle of the Forum fell in to an immense depth, presenting the appearance of an enormous cavern. Though all worked their hardest at throwing earth in, they were unable to fill up the gulf, until at the bidding of the gods inquiry was made as to what that was in which the strength of Rome lay. For this, the seers declared, must be sacrificed on that spot if men wished the Roman republic to be eternal. The story goes on that M. Curtius, a youth distinguished in war, indignantly asked those who were in doubt what answer to give, whether anything that Rome possessed was more precious than the arms and valour of her sons. As those around stood silent, he looked up to the Capitol and to the temples of the immortal gods which looked down on the Forum, and stretching out his hands first towards heaven and then to the yawning chasm beneath, devoted himself to the gods below. Then mounting his horse, which had been caparisoned as magnificently as possible, he leaped in full armour into the cavern. Gifts and offerings of fruits of the earth were flung in after him by crowds of men and women.” Livy

🔘 A FREEDMEN OF CLAUDIUS “Of his freedmen he had special regard for the eunuch Posides, whom he even presented with the headless spear at his British triumph, along with those who had served as soldiers. He was equally fond of Felix, giving him the command of cohorts and of troops of horse, as well as of the province of Judaea; and he became the husband of three queens. Only two of these are known, both named Drusilla. One was the daughter of Juba II, king of Mauretania, and the other of Herod Agrippa I, of Judaea; the latter was previously married to Azizus, king of Emesa.” Suetonius (Felix is primarily known for his interactions with the Apostle Paul, as recorded in the Book of Acts, particularly Acts 24. Paul was brought before Felix on charges brought by Jewish leaders.)

🔵 HADRIANS MEMORY “Hadrian's memory was vast and his ability was unlimited; for instance, he personally dictated his speeches and gave opinions on all questions. He was also very witty, and of his jests many still survive. The following one has even become famous: When he had refused a request to a certain grey-haired man, and the man repeated the request but this time with dyed hair, Hadrian replied: "I have already refused this to your father." Even without the aid of a nomenclator he could call by name a great many people, whose names he had heard but once and then all in a crowd; indeed, he could correct the nomenclators when they made mistakes, as they not infrequently did, and he even knew the names of the veterans whom he had discharged at various times. He could repeat from memory, after a rapid reading, books which to most men were not known at all. He wrote, dictated, listened, and, incredible as it seems, conversed with his friends, all at one and the same time. He had as complete a knowledge of the state-budget in all its details as any careful householder has of his own household. His horses and dogs he loved so much that he provided burial-places for them, and in one locality he founded a town called Hadrianotherae, because once he had hunted successfully there and killed a bear.” Historia Augusta

🟣 STRABO ON THE BRITONS “Most of the island is flat and overgrown with forests, although many of its districts are hilly. It bears grain, cattle, gold, silver, and iron. These things, accordingly, are exported from the island, as also hides, and slaves, and dogs that are by nature suited to the purposes of the chase; the Celti, however, use both these and the native dogs for the purposes of war too. The men of Britain are taller than the Celti, and not so yellow-haired, although their bodies are of looser build. The following is an indication of their size: I myself, in Rome, saw mere lads towering as much as half a foot above the tallest people in the city, although they were bandy-legged and presented no fair lines anywhere else in their figure. Their habits are in part like those of the Celti, but in part more simple and barbaric — so much so that, on account of their inexperience, some of them, although well supplied with milk, make no cheese; and they have no experience in gardening or other agricultural pursuits. And they have powerful chieftains in their country. For the purposes of war they use chariots for the most part, just as some of the Celti do. The forests are their cities; for they fence in a spacious circular enclosure with trees which they have felled, and in that enclosure make huts for themselves and also pen up their cattle — not, however, with the purpose of staying a long time.” Strabo

“Everything comes from you, and we have given you only what comes from your hand.”

⚪️ DIODORUS ON MARIUS “Gaius Marius was the most renowned person of his time, when he was young: he was ambitious of honour and glory, free from greed, and performed many noble acts, both in Africa and Europe, so that his name was famous, and celebrated everywhere. But when he reached old age, he coveted the riches of king Mithridates, and the wealth of the cities of Asia, and sought against the laws to have the province, which was allotted to Cornelius Sulla, transferred to himself. As a result, he suffered many calamities, and brought disgrace on his previous good reputation; for he not only failed to obtain those riches which he coveted, but also he lost all his own possessions, when his property was confiscated because of his extraordinary greed. He was, moreover, condemned to death by his own country; but escaped that punishment by running away, and wandered solitarily and alone up and down Italy. At length he was forced out of Africa and reached Numidia, without any resources, servants or friends. Afterwards, when the civil wars broke out in Rome, he joined with the enemies of his fatherland, and, being victorious, he was not contented with his return home, but stirred up the flames of war. At length, having gained a seventh consulship, and by his own misfortunes learned the inconstancy of fortune, he was unwilling to put things to a hazard any more.” Diodorus Siculus

🟢 HEADS ON SPEARS. “When Lucius Sulla was besieging Praeneste, he fastened on spears the heads of Praenestine generals who had been slain in battle, and exhibited them to the besieged inhabitants, thus breaking their stubborn resistance. Arminius, leader of the Germans, likewise fastened on spears the heads of those he had slain, and ordered them to be brought up to the fortifications of the enemy.” Frontinus: The Strategemata

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⚫️ BRIDGING RIVERS “Rivers are bridged by the Romans with the greatest ease, since the soldiers are always practising bridge-building, which is carried on like any other warlike exercise, on the Ister, the Rhine, and the Euphrates. Now the method of procedure — which probably is not familiar to everybody — is as follows. The ships by means of which the river is to be bridged are flat-bottomed, and these are anchored a little way up-stream from the spot where the bridge is to be constructed. Then, when the signal is given, they first let one ship drift down-stream close to the bank that they are holding; and when it has come opposite to the spot that is to be bridged, they throw into the stream a wicker-basket filled with stones and fastened by a cable, which serves as an anchor. Made fast in this way, the ship remains in position near the bank, and by means of planks and bridge-work, which the vessel carries in large quantity, a floor is at once laid to the landing-place. Then they send down another ship at a little distance from the first, and another one beyond that, until they have extended the bridge to the opposite bank. The ship that is nearest the enemy's bank carries towers upon it and a gate and archers and catapults.” Cassius Dio

🟡 CHARIOTS The Roman chariot was crucial for both warfare and entertainment. Constructed primarily from wood, often ash or elm, the lightweight frame provided both strength and flexibility. Four-spoked wheels, typically made of wood with iron tires for durability and traction, were a key feature. In racing chariots, a single iron tire was often applied to the right wheel to enhance cornering. The body was a simple, open platform with low sides, and suspension was basic, relying on the flexibility of the wooden frame and leather straps. Teams of horses, ranging from two (biga) to four (quadriga), pulled the chariots. Harnessing involved a system of leather straps and collars designed for rapid acceleration and sharp turns. Iron tires increased wheel durability and traction, while the wheel design itself was optimized for speed and maneuverability. Harnessing techniques allowed for precise control of the horse team. War chariots were equipped for combat, carrying a driver and one or two warriors armed with javelins, swords, and bows. Some even featured scythes attached to the wheels for slashing enemy legs. In contrast, racing chariots were designed for speed and agility, with a streamlined shape to minimize wind resistance and specialized wheels for enhanced cornering.

🟤 JULIUS CEASAR IN ALEXANDRIA Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria, Egypt, in October 48 BC, pursuing his rival Pompey. He was met with the shocking news that Pompey had been assassinated by Ptolemy XIII, the young king of Egypt, who presented Pompey's head to Caesar as a gesture of goodwill. Caesar was reportedly horrified by this act, as Pompey had once been his ally and son-in-law. Caesar found himself entangled in a power struggle between Ptolemy XIII and his sister, Cleopatra VII. He aimed to mediate the dispute while also securing his own interests in Egypt. Tensions escalated, leading to clashes between Caesar's troops and the Alexandrian populace. Outnumbered, Caesar and his forces faced a siege within the royal palace. Despite this, he managed to hold out, receiving reinforcements from his allies in the region. Cleopatra had herself smuggled into the palace in a rolled-up carpet and successfully charmed Caesar.

🔶 TWO BROTHERS, TWO SIDES “The river Weser ran between the Roman and Cheruscan forces. Arminius came to the bank and halted with his fellow chieftains:— "Had the Caesar come?" he inquired.⁠ On receiving the reply that he was in presence, he asked to be allowed to speak with his brother. That brother, Flavus by name, was serving in the army, a conspicuous figure both from his loyalty and from the loss of an eye through a wound received some few years before during Tiberius' term of command. Leave was granted, <and Stertinius took him down to the river>.⁠ Walking forward, he was greeted by Arminius; who, dismissing his own escort, demanded that the archers posted along our side of the stream should be also withdrawn. When these had retired, he asked his brother, whence the disfigurement of his face? On being told the place and battle, he inquired what reward he had received. Flavus mentioned his increased pay, the chain, the crown, and other military decorations; Arminius scoffed at the cheap rewards of servitude.” Tacitus

🔺EVENTS OF THE 270’S BC “The treaty with the Carthaginians renewed a fourth time. An offer made to Fabricius, the consul, by a traitor, to poison Pyrrhus; [Y. R. 474. B. C. 278.] he sends him to the king, and discovers to him the treasonable offer. Successful operations against the Etruscans, Lucanians, Bruttians, and Samnites.” “Pyrrhus crosses over into Sicily. [Y. R. 475. B. C. 277.] Many prodigies, among which, the statue of Jupiter in the Capitol is struck by lightning, and thrown down. [Y. R. 476. B. C. 276.] The head of it afterwards found by the priests. Curius Dentatus, holding a levy, puts up to sale the goods of a person who refuses to answer to his name when called upon. [Y. R. 477. B. C. 275.] Pyrrhus, after his return from Sicily, is defeated, and compelled to quit Italy. The censors hold a lustrum, and find the number of the citizens to be two hundred and seventy-one thousand two hundred and twenty-four. [Y. R. 479. B. c. 273.] A treaty of alliance formed with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Sextilia, a vestal, found guilty of incest, and buried alive. Two colonies sent forth, to Posidonium and Cossa. [Y. R. 480. B. C. 272.] A Carthaginian fleet sails, in aid of the Tarentines, by which act the treaty is violated. Successful operations against the Lucanians, Samnites, and Bruttians. Death of king Pyrrhus.” “The Tarentines overcome: peace and freedom granted to them. [Y. R. 481. B. C. 271.]” Livy

🔘 POLICIES OF THE CLAUDIUS ADMINISTRATION “He forbade men of foreign birth to use the Roman names so far as those of the clans were concerned. Those who usurped the privileges of Roman citizen­ship he executed in the Esquiline field. He restored to the senate the provinces of Achaia and Macedonia, which Tiberius had taken into his own charge. He deprived the Lycians of their independence because of deadly intestine feuds, and restored theirs to the Rhodians, since they had given up their former faults. He allowed the people of Ilium perpetual exemption from tribute, on the ground that they were the founders of the Roman race, reading an ancient letter of the senate and people of Rome written in Greek to king Seleucus, in which they promised him their friendship and alliance only on condition that he should keep their kinsfolk of Ilium free from every burden. Since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome. He allowed the envoys of the Germans to sit in the orchestra, led by their naïve self-confidence; for when they had been taken to the seats occupied by the common people and saw the Parthian and Armenian envoys sitting with the senate, they moved of their own accord to the same part of the theatre, protesting that their merits and rank were no whit inferior. He utterly abolished the cruel and inhuman religion of the Druids among the Gauls, which under Augustus had merely been prohibited to Roman citizens; on the other hand he even attempted to transfer the Eleusinian rites from Attica to Rome, and had the temple of Venus Erycina in Sicily, which had fallen to ruin through age, restored at the expense of the treasury of the Roman people. He struck his treaties with foreign princes in the Forum, sacrifi­cing a pig and reciting the ancient formula of the fetial priests. But these and other acts, and in fact almost the whole conduct of his reign, were dictated not so much by his own judgment as that of his wives and freedmen, since he nearly always acted in accordance with their interests and desires.” Suetonius